MAIS644: Literature Review

Introduction

This literature review explores adult learning and community leadership in the context of the Jobs Unlimited Emerging Leaders Program (JUELP), an internal leadership development initiative originally designed to strengthen the organization's future leadership capacity.  The program was created in response to concerns related to succession planning, organizational sustainability, and the need to intentionally develop leadership capabilities among staff resulting from an organizational threat, risk, vulnerability assessment.   Participants include frontline staff, supervisors, and members of the senior leadership team who engage in discussions of leadership theory, communication, governance, workplace relationships, and servant leadership.

In Assignment 1, I explored how leadership learning in my nonprofit organization differed from other training courses I had encountered throughout my career.  Rather than focusing primarily on technical competencies or authority, the Emerging Leaders Program, to some degree, utilizes dialogue, experiential learning, collaboration, and personal growth.  As a direct result of these MAIS explorations and reflections, I have increasingly come to regard leadership less as a title or management function and more so as an ongoing process of learning, relationship-building, and adaptation.  

The implications for adult education and community leadership are significant. Community-based organizations often operate in ever-changing environments that require leadership to navigate complexity, uncertainty, and competing priorities.  In such circumstances, leadership development becomes a necessity rather than a compliance exercise.  This literature review carefully examines adult learning theory, transformative learning, communities of practice, reflective practice, and adaptive leadership to better understand how adults learn leadership capacity in nonprofit settings.  

Adult Learning: Experience and Reflection

As a rubric, adult learning theory provided a starting point for understanding how leadership capacity develops within workplace and community settings.  Unlike traditional training and development courses that emphasize the simple transmission of knowledge from instructor to learner, adult learning theory recognizes that adults bring prior experiences, perspectives, and practical knowledge to the learning process.  As a result, effective adult learning is connected to relevance, autonomy, reflection, and opportunities to apply learning in contexts that are personal and impactful to the learner.

Merriam (2001) identifies andragogy and self-directed learning as pillars of adult learning theory.  Both perspectives emphasize that adult learners are motivated by practical application and are more likely to engage with learning that connects directly to their lived experiences and needs.  Rather than viewing learners as empty vessels, Merriam suggests that adults actively construct knowledge and cognitively derive meaning from experiences.  This perspective is particularly relevant to leadership development, where learners seek to make sense of the direct, challenging workplace situations they face.

At the same time, Merriam (2001) acknowledges that adult learning theories have limitations.  While self-directed learning promotes independence and personal responsibility, other factors, such as organizational, social, and cultural contexts, shape mindsets and learning perspectives just as sharply.  I see this viewpoint as relevant to my current experience, in which learners are influenced not only by their interests and motivations but also by our workplace culture, limited resources, competing priorities, and scarce opportunities for participation.  Staff participating in the JUELP spend their entire day supporting clients, leaving little to no time for the reflection, discussion, and development activities that help build a culture of learning and leadership.

This brings me to Gouthro's (2019) consideration that theory is essential because it helps people make sense of and relate their own experiences.  Experience alone does not necessarily lead to learning. As Gouthro states, "Theory helps educators make sense of the problems and challenges that they face in their work, and understand better the social, political, cultural, and economic factors shaping their learning contexts" (p. 70).  Reflection coupled with theory helps individuals interpret those experiences, identify patterns, and understand them within a broader organizational or societal context.  Rather than viewing theory and experience as competing, Gouthro suggests that they work together to support meaningful learning.  This alone has helped me better understand how to adapt future leadership modules with a greater reliance on shared reflection born of experience rather than on course materials (Simon Sinek videos and TED Talks) alone.   

This is something I have repeatedly observed in our JUELP.  My teammates often connect to a leadership concept when they can relate it to a situation in our day-to-day work, a difficult conversation, or a challenge they are currently facing.  Leadership development, therefore, becomes less about mastering content and more about helping people make sense of their own and shared experiences.  In that regard, theory serves an important function.  It provides a framework that helps participants interpret what they have already experienced first-hand and be open to new ways of approaching future challenges or initiatives.

Democratic Leadership Learning

Democratic approaches to leadership emphasize that leadership development is more than collegial frameworks.  It requires a commitment to being intentionally relational and depends on participation, dialogue, trust, and shared responsibility rather than on title, authority, or an organizational chart alone. 

Brookfield's (2010) work challenged some of my own blind spots about leadership.  Rather than emphasizing authority or expertise, he argues that leadership involves creating space where people can participate meaningfully, think critically, and vulnerably contribute to solving problems together. Leadership is less about directing others and more about creating an environment where engagement, learning, and collaboration can thrive (Brookfield, 2010).  This aligns with our examination of adult learning concepts thus far and with adaptive leadership theory, as it recognizes that people learn best when relatable, active offers of engagement are provided in the learning process. 

Brookfield challenges the view that leadership is entirely hierarchical.  I recognize this perspective undoubtedly within nonprofit organizations, where authority structures are far less formal and workplace cultures are highly collaborative, where success depends on the collective contributions of staff, volunteers, stakeholders, community partners, and clients' support networks.   Here, I see the importance of a workplace culture that aligns with an emerging adult learning and leadership framework. 

Through Brookfield's lens, the JUELP should concentrate more on active participation, relationship-building, and collective reflection to be most effective not only in participants’ growth but also in transforming our workplace culture.  Brookfield's consideration of participation and dialogue raises a related question: how do these experiences actually change people?

Transformative Learning and Identity

Bridging from Brookfield, the literature also suggests that meaningful learning may involve shifts in how individuals understand themselves, their biases and assumptions, and their relationships with others.

Mezirow's theory of transformative learning proposes that adults can undergo a perspective transformation when tackling ideas, experiences, or situations that challenge long-held assumptions.  Through critical reflection, sharing and dialogue, adult learners may begin to question some of their beliefs and develop new ways of understanding themselves and the world around them (Mezirow, 1991). This mirrors the way MAIS students are encouraged to sit with discomfort and reflect on new theoretical perspectives when they are challenged or experience ideological tension.

As I reflected on this, I began to see leadership development as requiring people to first identify and confront their assumptions about power, responsibility, communication, and influence.  This led me to believe that meaningful learning requires us to sit with and embrace complexity rather than retreat too quickly to easy answers and certainty.  Transformative learning therefore requires that leadership is less about being in charge and more about doing the work to be better positioned to help people learn, work together, and grow.

Howie and Bagnall (2015) present a critique of transformative learning theory, warning against the assumption that meaningful learning must result in immediate epiphanies and personal transformation.  They argue that learning often occurs along a more stretched-out continuum, ranging from deeper understanding and increased self-awareness to more significant shifts in thought and identity.  I recognize this distinction, and it is an important reminder for the JUELP: adult learners experience growth along different pathways and at different speeds, depending on their ability to access their own experiences. 

I see where drawing out reflection and dialogue among learners is a critical role in incubating these shifts, especially among reluctant introverts or where trust and vulnerability have not been fostered.  Through curated discussions and reflections, the instructor's mission is to expose learners to diverse leadership perspectives and reflections, encouraging a ‘shift’ in what leadership means and how they might contribute to the organization beyond their current perceptions and roles.

I find that growth does not always appear as an overnight sensation.  It appears in micro-shifts: increased confidence during difficult conversations, a willingness to take initiative, or early signs of a growth mindset.  Howie and Bagnall's critique feels especially relevant here.  

Together, these authors helped me think differently about how our leadership program and organizational culture can be developed.  Leadership learning is not just about acquiring skills but is also about an inevitable change in learners’ identity, worldview, and understanding of self (strengths, biases, EQ, etc.).

Communities of Practice and Collective Learning

Another theme present in the adult learning literature is that learning is not solely an individual activity but also a social process shaped by participation.  Wenger's (1998) popular and oft-cited concept of ‘communities of practice’ demonstrates this by providing a framework for understanding how leadership knowledge develops in workplace and community settings.

Wenger (1998) suggests that learning occurs through participation and connectivity in communities where individuals share common interests, challenges, goals, and experiences. Rather than being transmitted from expert to learner, knowledge therefore becomes socially constructed and connected to participation within a community (Wenger, 1998).

An important aspect of Wenger's framework is the relationship between learning and identity.  Wenger argues that communities of practice allow individuals to develop competence and incorporate it into an "identity of participation" (as cited in Graven & Lerman, 2003, p. 186).  As Graven and Lerman (2003) note in their review of Wenger's work, learning is understood not simply as acquiring knowledge but as becoming a participant within a community.  This helps explain what I observe within the JUELP.  Participants are not simply learning about leadership; they are developing a leadership identity through participation in a type of leadership community.  Their confidence grows as they contribute to discussions, share experiences, and have their perspectives recognized by colleagues.  In this sense, leadership development becomes as much about identity as it does about acquiring knowledge or skills.

Sousa (2021) reiterates many of Wenger’s findings and highlights the connection between adult education and community development in Canada.  Rather than viewing learning as solely an individual pursuit, he argues that adult education has historically contributed to citizenship, participation, and collective problem-solving within communities.  This perspective resonated with me because it suggests that leadership development within nonprofit organizations serves a purpose beyond individual career advancement and strategic plan objectives.  At Jobs Unlimited, leadership development can also strengthen the organization's capacity to contribute to broader community and policy goals related to inclusion, employment, and social participation.  Leadership development becomes not only an organizational activity but also a form of community-building. 

Wenger's concept of communities of practice may be the framework that most closely resembles what I see occurring among learners within the JUELP.  While participants engage with content and organizational concepts, much of what feels like learning or growth occurs through discussion, reflection, storytelling, and the collaborative examination of workplace experiences.  

It also raises an interesting question for Jobs Unlimited as an organization.  If communities of practice are powerful vehicles for learning, then leadership development should not be confined to a single program.  It should encourage stronger connections with colleagues across branches and divisions, the supported employment sector, community partners, employers, and other organizations facing similar challenges.  The JUELP may represent the beginning of a broader community of practice that extends beyond Jobs Unlimited.

Adaptive Leadership and Reflective Practice

Through content and text analysis, the literature reviewed thus far consistently reiterates that leadership development is closely linked to learning theory, reflection, identity, and participation.  I see how adaptive leadership and reflective practice extend these concepts by highlighting that leadership itself is a learning activity.  Again, rather than viewing leadership as the exercise of skills or authority, adaptive leadership theory positions it as a process through which individuals and organizations learn to navigate uncertainty, make sense of complexity, and adapt to changing circumstances.

Heifetz's pandemic-related work continues to resonate with me.  During this prolonged period of considerable change and complexity, some of the most difficult leadership challenges were not technical problems that could be solved through expertise alone.  They required people to learn, relearn, adapt, and often rethink long-held assumptions and processes.  Heifetz et al. (2009) suggest that leadership is most important when individuals and organizations face challenges that cannot be resolved through existing knowledge or established procedures alone.  In these situations, leadership becomes less about providing answers and more about facilitating learning.  Leaders help people confront difficulties, build resilience, mitigate risk, consider new perspectives, and engage in the work necessary to adapt.  From this perspective, leadership is not something exercised exclusively by those in formal positions of authority but a process or a culture (swarm leadership) that enables learning and change throughout an organization.

In these complex circumstances, leaders rarely have all the answers.  Their responsibility is to help people work through challenges.  This understanding aligns closely with many of the adult learning principles explored throughout this review and reinforces the idea that leadership development and adult learning theory are inseparable.

In earlier drafts of this review, I found myself contemplating the relationship between adaptive and servant leadership.  Servant leadership is closely tied to our understanding of how we also serve our clients.  While servant leadership is concerned with service, relationships, and the growth of others, adaptive leadership focuses on learning and adaptation amid complexity.  Both approaches seemingly challenge notions of leadership based on authority or title.  However, adaptive leadership adds an important dimension by emphasizing the leader's role in helping their team collectively learn their way through problems.  The two approaches appear complementary and important tools for the ‘leader of leaders’, yet may be applied in very different contexts. 

What makes adaptive leadership increasingly relevant to nonprofit organizations is that no amount of technical expertise will begin to address the biggest challenges they face.  Leadership development can evolve to be less about producing subject-matter experts and more about helping people become comfortable navigating uncertainty and complexity, and finding collaborative methods to solve both old problems and new, increasingly diverse challenges.    

According to Heifetz et al. (2009), leadership development can therefore be understood as an ongoing learning process rather than the achievement of a particular role or title. Altogether, adaptive leadership and reflective practice reinforce one of the strongest themes emerging from this literature review: effective leadership development is inseparable from adult learning theory.  

In my view, adaptive leadership is a bridge between theory and practice, emphasizing the practical application of most of the adult learning concepts explored herein.  Transformative learning helps explain how perspectives shift, communities of practice prove where more meaningful learning can take place, and adaptive leadership shows how leaders create the conditions and environment for that learning to take place.

Conclusion: What I Learned

When I began this literature review, I viewed the JUELP predominantly as a leadership development initiative intended to strengthen organizational capacity, support succession planning, and prepare staff for future responsibilities.  While those objectives remain important, the literature reviewed here encouraged me to think differently about what leadership development actually involves.  I now see it as a process of adult learning shaped by experience, reflection, and adaptation.

From the learner’s perspective, some of the concepts discussed already occur at Jobs Unlimited, even if they are not explicitly called out or seen through an adult learning theory perspective.  Notably, it confirms that participants learn most effectively when learning is connected to their real-world experience and when they have opportunities to reflect upon and discuss those experiences with others (Gouthro, 2019; Merriam, 2001).  Whether viewed through Brookfield's (2010) democratic leadership framework, Wenger's (1998) communities of practice, or Heifetz et al.'s (2009) adaptive leadership model, leadership learning appears to develop through interaction, dialogue, participation, and shared learning rather than through traditional instructional approaches alone.

At the same time, several ideas challenged my thinking.  The transformative learning readings taught me to consider how leadership development can also involve changes in how people understand themselves, their relationships, and their roles within organizations and communities (Howie & Bagnall, 2015).  As a result, I will place greater value on my teammates’ ability to develop their own identities and grow personally in delivering our leadership program, concepts I would not have considered outright previously.

Integrating these adult learning theories will mean that the Emerging Leaders Program is about more than simply mitigating organizational risk.  It will be about helping Jobs Unlimited become a community of leadership practice, learning, and reflectivity where individuals develop confidence, adaptability, self-awareness, and capacity to help others strengthen both the organization and the broader community we serve.

References:

Brookfield, S. (2010). Leading democratically. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2010(128), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.386

Gouthro, P. A. (2019). Taking time to learn: The importance of theory for adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 69(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713618815656

Graven, M., & Lerman, S. (2003). Review of Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity by E. Wenger. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 6, 185–194.

Heifetz, R. A., Grashow, A., & Linsky, M. (2009). The practice of adaptive leadership: Tools and tactics for changing your organization and the world. Harvard Business Press.

Howie, P., & Bagnall, R. (2015). A critical comparison of transformation and deep approach theories of learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 34(3), 348–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2014.1000409

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2001(89), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.3

Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass.

Sousa, J. W. (2021). Community development in Canadian adult education: Looking back and moving forward. Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education, 33(2), 27–43. https://doi.org/10.56105/cjsae.v33i2.5594

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press.

 Appendix “A”: Literature Search Strategy

Searches were conducted through the Athabasca University Library, retrieving sources from ERIC, EBSCO, Education Resource Complete, JSTOR, and Academic Search Complete. Initial searches focused on adult learning and leadership development, which yielded broad results but pointed to narrower topics including transformative learning, communities of practice, SDL, adaptive leadership, servant leadership, community leadership, and nonprofit leadership development.  Additional searches then focused on nonprofit and community-based organizational contexts.

To supplement database searches, Google Books and ResearchGate were also used to locate sources, book reviews, review articles, and additional scholarly articles on key authors and concepts, providing context and deepening understanding.